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A Russian physiologist and researcher Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is the type in which a neutral stimulus comes to
bring about a response after it’s paired with a stimulus that naturally
brings out that response. Classical conditioning is a step-by-step
process that starts with a neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus
that produces no response. Then the neutral stimulus is combined with
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which is a stimulus that naturally initiates a response thus resulting in an unconditioned response (UCR). Next a conditioned stimulus
is created it (CS). A conditioned stimulus is the end result of a
neutral stimulus that was added to an unconditioned stimulus. Finally
this stimulus results in a conditioned response (CR), which is the learned response. An example of the process of classical conditioning
is if your ex-lover always wore a certain brand of cologne now every
time you smell that scent you think of him/ or her and are overcome by a
feeling of sadness. The neutral stimulus is cologne. The
unconditioned stimulus is your ex-lover. The unconditioned response is
you associating your ex-lover to that fragrance. The conditioned
stimulus is associating your ex-lover to that fragrance every time you
smell it. The conditioned response is a feeling of sadness every time
you smell that aroma.
The
lowest stage of Maslow’s stage of personality development is
physiological which is the most basic. For example it deals with the
needs of food, water, and sleep. The next step is safety, which is the
security of health, property and employment. The third level is love,
which has to do with family and friendship. The fourth level is esteem
which focuses on confidence and acceptance. The last level is very
similar and is called self-actualization, which deals with the
acceptance of facts creativity and morality. Self-actualization is a
strong desire of fulfillment and full realization of one’s potential and
capabilities. In order to achieve self-actualization all basic needs
are must be met. You come into the realization of what you’re capable of
becoming.
Lawrence
Kohlberg created the stages of moral development. In this theory
explains that moral reasoning has six developmental stages. Kohlberg
theory was further grouped into three levels with two stages each. The
first level is called the pre-conventional. The first stage of this
level is obedience and learning how to avoid punishment and the second
is the self-interest where the individual is motivated by moral judgment
that satisfies his/her own needs. The second level is called the
conventional level. The first stage is the avoidance of disapproval or
rejection of others. The second stage is more focused on a need not to
be criticized by authority. The final level is called post-conventional.
The first stage is motivated by the respect of social order and laws. The
second stage is motivated by an individual’s conscience. It is said
that you cannot regress in stages nor can you skip stages because each
stage provides new perspective.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is made up of four stages. The first stage is from birth to two years of age and is called the sensorimotor stage. The baby learns to coordinate seeing and hearing with movement. The second one is six to seven years of age, which is named as the preoperational stage. During this stage the child understands objects and images. Next is the concrete operational stage, which starts at age eleven and ends at age twelve. The child can develop proper logic. The last stage is from age twelve to adulthood, which is called the formal operations stage. When
the individual is faced with a problem he/she is able to contemplate
all possible answers which are called hypothetic-deductive reasoning.
John Carroll (1963, 1989) has synthesized
much of the research on learning theory into his model of school
learning. According to this model, there are five elements that
contribute to the effectiveness of instruction:
1. Aptitude refers to
the students' general abilities to learn.
2. Ability to understand
instruction refers to the students' knowledge of
prerequisite skills and information needed to understand a unit of
instruction.
3. Perseverance refers to
the amount of time students are willing to spend actively
participating in the learning process.
4. Opportunity refers to
the amount of time available for learning. It could include
homework time as well as time in class.
5. Quality of instruction
refers to the effectiveness with which the unit of instruction
is actually delivered.
Carroll combined these elements into a model
focusing on time as the key determinant in learning.
The five elements described above contribute
to either time needed to learn or time spent in learning. Carroll
stated that the degree of learning can be described as a ratio
between (a) time needed to learn and (b) time actually spent on
learning. For simplicity, the exact ways in which each element makes
its contribution are not discussed in this textbook. In specific
mathematical terms, this ratio can be stated as a formula:
Degree of learning = f(Time
Spent/Time Needed)
Carroll's insights and formula provided the
foundation for the theory of mastery learning, which has been further
developed by theorists such as Bloom (1968, 1976) and Block &
Anderson (1975).
Review Quiz 1 - Carroll's Model
of School Learning
Match each of the descriptions below with
the appropriate element in Carroll's model of school learning. Choose
from the following list:
a. aptitude
b. ability to understand
instruction
c. perseverance
d. opportunity
e. quality of instruction
1.____ Jane is having trouble in math. This
is largely because she never does her homework.
2 _____ Art is having trouble in math. His
mother thinks that this is because the teacher never assigns
homework.
3 _____ Maria is having trouble in math. The
special education teacher says this is because Maria has a learning
disability that interferes with learning math.
4 _____ Michael is having trouble in math.
This is probably because he didn't pay much attention last year, and
this year's instruction builds upon what was learned last
year.
5 _____ Gene is having trouble in math. He
does well on the homework, but the homework appears to be unrelated
to what goes on in math class. If the homework were more closely
related, Gene would probably do better.
Examine the following description of
classroom activity and use the preceding list of elements in
Carroll's model of school learning to answer questions that follow
it:
Marta wants to learn to use the
computer for word processing. She thinks she should be able to do
this, because she has succeeded at comparable activities and she
already knows how to type and how to use the computer for other
purposes. She decides to learn from a computerized tutorial that
enables her to learn to use the word processing program at the
computer. She sets aside an hour a day, five days a week; and she
works industriously at the tutorial during most of this time. The
only exception is that she sometimes talks to her boyfriend on the
phone instead of working at the tutorial during the designated
time period.
6 _____ Marta thinks that she can succeed at
word processing partly because she has succeeded at comparable
activities. This insight focuses on what element in Carroll's model
of school learning?
7 _____ Marta thinks that she can succeed at
word processing partly because she already knows how to type and to
use the computer for other purposes. This insight focuses on what
element in Carroll's model of school learning?
8 _____ If the computerized tutorial was
actually an effective way to learn to use the word processing
program, this would exemplify what element in Carroll's model of
school learning?
9 ____ When Marta set aside an hour a day to
practice word processing, she was focusing on what element in
Carroll's model of school learning?
10 ____ When Marta used most of the hour she
set aside each day to practice word processing, she was focusing on
what element in Carroll's model of school learning?
11 ____ When Marta spent time talking to her
boyfriend instead of working on the tutorial, she was detracting from
what element in Carroll's model of school learning?
